The Necklaces Essay Example for Free

The Necklaces Essay Motifs Coveting Throughout â€Å"The Necklace,† Mathilde covets everything that other people have and she does not. Whereas Monsieur Loisel happily looks forward to having hot soup for dinner, Mathilde thinks only of the grandness of other homes and lavish table settings that she does not own. When Monsieur Loisel obtains an invitation for a party, she covets a new dress so that she can look as beautiful as the other wives as well as jewelry so that she does not look poor in comparison to them. She is so covetous of Madame Forestier’s wealth that she cannot bear to visit her, but she overcomes her angst when she needs to borrow jewelry for the party; there, her coveting is briefly sated because she gets to take one of the ornaments home with her. After the party, she covets the fur coats the other women are wearing, which highlight the shabbiness of her own wraps. This endless coveting ultimately leads to Mathilde’s downfall and, along the way, yields only fleeting happiness. It is so persistent, however, that it takes on a life of its own—Mathilde’s coveting is as much a part of her life as breathing. Symbols The Necklace The necklace, beautiful but worthless, represents the power of perception and the split between appearances and reality. Mathilde borrows the necklace because she wants to give the appearance of being wealthy; Madame Forestier does not tell her up front that the necklace is fake, perhaps because she, too, wants to give the illusion of being wealthier than she actually is. Because Mathilde is so envious of Madame Forestier and believes her to be wealthy, she never doubts the necklace’s authenticity—she expects diamonds, so diamonds are what she perceives. She enters willingly and unknowingly into this deception, and her complete belief in her borrowed wealth allows her to convey an appearance of wealth to others. Because she believes herself rich for one night, she becomes rich in others’ eyes. The fact that the necklace is at the center of the deception that leads to Mathilde’s downfall suggests that only trouble can come from denying the reality of oneâ⠂¬â„¢s situation.

Factors Causing Language Speaking Anxiety In Classroom English Language Essay

Factors Causing Language Speaking Anxiety In Classroom English Language Essay In the last few decades, considerable effort has been devoted to recognising the role of anxiety in L2 learning. Such studies (Scovel, 1978; Horwitz, 1986; Spolsky, 1989; Phillips, 1992; Maclntyre Grander, 1994; Baker Maclntyre, 2000; Cheng, 2004) have provided us with useful information about anxiety that has recently acknowledged one of the main barriers that impedes L2 learning (Brown, 2007; Grander, 2001 cited in Pritchard, 2007). According to Abdul Aziz (2005), it is vital to realize the role of anxiety and its affect on the process of language learning since it ranks high among factors that can influence language learning, regardless of whether the setting is formal or informal. So what is meant by anxiety and to what refers language anxiety? What are the reasons that prevent students from participating in language classes and make them resort to silence? What causes their language anxiety? And, from which sources does it stem? Such questions will be answering in this chapter alongside reviewing some previous studies on second/foreign language anxiety. 2.2. Definition of Anxiety The term anxiety in general, has been defined by Scovel (1978, p.134) as a state of apprehension, (and) a vague fear. It is a complicated phenomenon to describe since it arises from various sources. People usually are not able to specify the exact emission of their nervousness and anxiety. However, it is worth mentioning that although there are several studies that have dealt with such an area, Horwitz was the first investigator of foreign language classroom anxiety (Liu, 2006). Horwitz claims that anxiety experienced by L2 learners is unique to the learning process and completely different from other types of anxiety (1986). Language anxiety according to Maclntyer and Gardner (1994, p. 284), is a type of anxiety that can be defined as the feeling of tension and apprehension specifically associated with second language contexts, including listening, speaking and learning. Anxious students usually show some signs of panic such as panic stare, white face (and) cold trembling hands (Ganschow Sparks, 2001, a35). On top of that, Abdul Aziz (2005) adds that those students may suffer from headache, blushing and pounding heart. The anxiety symptoms also could be physiological, for example an upset stomach and numbness, or cognitive symptoms such as preoccupation and worry, or behavioural symptoms such as avoidance (Cheng, 1999). 2.3 The Correlation between Anxiety and L2 Learning Some research into language anxiety has considered it to be an important variable that causes negative effects on students performance in class. They maintain that the higher the level of anxiety, the less the students are willing to communicate (Horwitz, 1986; Maclnttyre Gardner, 1994; Baker Maclntyre, 2000). It also points out that anxiety is an aid in raising the affective filter of the learners, resulting in stress, depression or fear and thus blocks the input from being absorbed and processed (Richards Rodgers, 2001; Abdul Aziz, 2005; Harmer, 2009: 58). It has also been noted that such feelings as mentioned above, are mostly centred around listening and speaking tasks with difficulty in speaking in class being the most common complaint of anxious students (Horwitz, 1986; Spolsky, 1989). However it is not necessary for anxious students who allege that they have a mental block in foreign language classes, to have the same feelings in other situations. The same students might be good learners and strongly motivated in other classes. Where some research has proved that even highly proficient language learners experienced different degrees of anxiety (Horwitz: 1986, p. 125; Brown, 2007: 163). On the other hand, there are theorists who argue to the contrary, who say that there is no correlation between anxiety and low achievement. Aida (1994) for example, who studied Japanese learners, has found a negative relationship between the anxiety experienced by the students and their performance. Other researchers asserted that second language performance and anxiety are positively related (e.g., Kleinmann, 1977; Spolsky, 1989), especially facilitative anxiety that is closely related to competitiveness which is considered to be key to successful learning (Brown, 2007: 162). However, such facilitation has only been found when using very simple grammatical structures (and) in all other cases, anxiety has been a debilitating factor in language acquisition (Duxbury Tsai, 2010). With regard to the relationship between anxiety and L2 learning, it is still under debate whether it is the cause or the product of learners low performance, or whether it harms or helps their performance. Is it a negative or a positive factor? Can teachers avoid or ameliorate anxiety in foreign language classes? (Brown, 2007: 163). To date, the research in this segment has not yielded any consistent findings (Matsuda, 2004). The studies surrounding this phenomenon are still under developed and attempts to better clarify it are still being carried out (Bailey, 2000). From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the correlation between anxiety and performance may not be a simple linear one; some factors (e.g., culture and learners proficiency) could also play a part (Na, Z., 2007). 2.4 What Factors Could Boost Language Anxiety? Horwitz et al. (1986) has pointed out some related causal factors for second language anxiety which can be summarised by: (1) communication apprehension, which is a type of shyness characterised by fear or anxiety about communication with people, (2) fear of negative evaluation and (3) test-anxiety. The example of I am usually at ease during tests in my class language (Woodrow, 2006) clarifies test-anxiety. There are other factors associated with the learners themselves and the environment of their language classes. Such factors are: self perception, learners beliefs about language learning, and the instructors beliefs about language teaching and classroom procedure (Tanveer, 2007). Other factors include age, gender, motivation and lack of confidence (Horwitz, 1986; Sparks Ganschow, 1991; Baker Maclntyre, 2000; Ohata, 2005). All of the things mentioned above, and many other factors contribute to existing L2 anxiety.

Process Essay - Bathing a Large Dog -- Expository Process Essays

Bathing a Large Dog Bathing a large dog in a bathtub is a test of human endurance equal to the most trying of Olympic events. It is, however, well worth the effort. You will be rewarded in knowing you are helping to keep your pet healthy. Additionally, you will know your home won't smell like the primate building at the zoo. To begin, prepare the bathing area. Gather several large bath towels; usually six are adequate. Put two of these on the floor near the tub. Place the additional towels on the closed commode. Use a shampoo that is especially made for the event. The Hartz Company makes an herbal scented brand that is pleasant to use. Have the shampoo within easy reach. You may want to place it on top of the closed commode. Have something at hand by which you can pour water on your dog; I suggest you use a rubber hose with a soft plastic nozzle resembling a miniature shower head. These hoses are inexpensive and attach to most bathtub water spouts. It is very important to have all of the necessary bathing supplies in the bathroom before you bring th...

The Global Warming Debate Essay -- Climate Change Debate, 2015

"Global warming is not a conqueror to kneel before - but a challenge to rise to. A challenge we must rise to." -- Joe Lieberman INTRODUCTION Global warming is a controversial environmental topic in today’s society. Global warming is when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide) act as a blanket that insulates the earth and prevents heat from escaping into space, which in turn causes the global temperature to rise. This â€Å"greenhouse effect† is a naturally occurring phenomenon; without it, the earth would be too cold for any life to inhabit. However, due to fossil fuel burning and other human activities, there is an excess amount of greenhouse gases (mainly carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere. Even though there is significant evidence of global warming, there are still skeptics whom believe that global warming is not occurring. BACKROUND INFORMATION Global warming is an increase in the earth’s temperature due to the use of fossil fuels and certain industrial and agricultural processes, which lead to a buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels are energy-rich substances that have formed from long-buried plants and microorganisms. They provide most of the energy that powers modern society. Fossil fuels include petroleum, coal and natural gases. Petroleum or crude oil, is a naturally occurring oily, bituminous liquid composed of various organic materials. Coal is a solid, dark-colored fuel found in deposits of sedimentary rock. It is burned to produce energy and is used to manufacture steel. Natural gases are any combustible gaseous mixture used as fuel to produce energy for domestic or industrial use. ... ...e Backlash Against Global Warming Has Begun.† The Economist. â€Å"Sample Errors and Biases in the Global Warming Theory.† . Date accessed: 12 April 2000. â€Å"Still Waiting for the Greenhouse.† . Date accessed: 12 April 2000. Taubes, Gary, â€Å"Apocalypse Not.† Science, Nov 7, 1997. â€Å"Trends.† EPA Global Warming Site Climate. . Date accessed: 8 April 2000. â€Å"Vector and Zoonotic Illnesses.† . Date accessed: 7 April 2000. â€Å"What Future Changes in Climate Can We Expect.† . Date accessed: 12 April 2000. Joe Lieberman Quote http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/global_warming.html#H2fdTgav5l6VVGt8.99

Battle Of Impunity :: essays research papers

Battle of Impunity   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Insults often serve as a catalyst for revenge. Yet, revenge never comes without consequences. These consequences can stay in a person’s subconscious for the remainder of their life. Through the clever short story â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† by Edgar Allan Poe, Montresor suffers from being insulted, seeking revenge and living with guilt. Montresor is unsuccessful in punishing Fortunato with impunity. The obsession to confess is a killer. Montresor starts the evil revenge plot with a smile on his face. â€Å"It must be understood that neither by word nor deed had I given Fortunato cause to doubt my good will. I continued, as was my wont, to smile in his face, and he did not perceive that my smile now was at the thought of his immolation.† Montresor believes that he will feel free and better about himself, for he will be completing his mission of impunity. With one brick remaining, â€Å"My heart grew sick; it was the dampness of the catacombs that made it so.† He thinks he will feel free, but throughout his life his freedom to do otherwise stands chained in the dank vault with Fortunato. He to is dead to the world, immobile, chained to the rock of his one guilt-ridden act of aggression. The sickness he feels isn’t the dampness of the catacombs, but the first feeling of remorse. He is killing a well â€Å"respected and even feared† man. Now confessing, t here is no way to change the past and his guilty conscience still remains. Through all the trouble Montresor goes through to kill the one person he truly despises, he benefits nothing. He thinks he will be happy. He even smiles at the sight of Fortunato in the beginning. Once he completes the task, the only thing left to do is live his life leaving Fortunato behind physically and mentally. Montresor can be better off leaving Fortunato alone, but instead he takes the unchristian way out and ends Fortunato’s life. He doesn’t gain anything from doing this, except a guilty conscience and a dead body. â€Å"A wrong is unredressed when retribution overtakes its redresser. It is equally unredressed when the avenger fails to make himself felt as such to him who has done the wrong.† Montresor doesn’t gain anything positive from the revenge.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With every experience one learns a lesson. Montresor lets the insulting Fortunato go straight to his head. He over reacts and cleverly tricks Fortunato into â€Å"the catacombs of the Montresors.

Different forms of child abuse Essay

Child abuse is a common term for four types of child maltreatment: sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional or psychological abuse, and neglect. Children are usually victims of more than one type of abuse. They could be both sexually and emotionally abused or they could also be physically abused and neglected. In some severe cases, children may suffer from more than two forms of abuse. Child abuse was once viewed as a minor social problem that only affected a handful of U.S. children. In recent years the media and law enforcement has paid close attention to the issue. More than 1,000 children died from abuse in 1996, in the U.S. (1). Approximately 231 children are abused each day. That is 10 children every hour, and one child every six minutes. Each day in the United States, more than three children die as a result of child abuse, in the home. More children, age four and younger, die from child abuse and neglect than any other single, leading cause of death for infants and young children (1). The abusers can be family members, parents, caretakers such as babysitters and teachers, and strangers. Abuse occurs among all ethnic, social, and income groups. Most parents don’t hurt or neglect their children intentionally. Many were themselves abused or neglected. Usually the cases that are reported involve poor families with little education. Also common in reports are young mothers, single-parent families, and parental drug or alcohol abuse. The frequency of child abuse is difficult to estimate, due to so many cases going unreported. There are signs, symptoms, and causes to all four types of child abuse. When you have a concern for a child’s well-being, the signs or symptoms may help guide you in the process of reporting. Although, these signs, mentioned later, don’t necessarily indicate that a child is being abused. A professional, who would be able to determine the abuse, should investigate the possibility. Determining the exact cause of child abuse is almost impossible. In general,  the factors that influence whether abuse will happen is grouped into two categories- internal and external. Lack of social support, economic hardship, and chemical dependency are a few external factors. Some internal factors are: biological, emotional, and psychological. Some factors are as common as low intelligence and range to, as rare as, a severe personality disorder such as Schizophrenia. Isolation is a factor contributing to abuse. When families have difficulties, perhaps from unemployment or other social problems, they may respond in a number of ways. The families that respond by isolating themselves, by withdrawing themselves from neighbors and friends, are the most likely to be abusive. Charles F. Johnson defines sexual abuse as † any activity with a child, before the age of legal consent, that is for the sexual gratification of an adult or a significantly older child.† Sexual abuse involves fondling, penetration, persuading a child to expose his or her sexual organs, and allowing a child to view pornography. In most of the reported cases the child knew the abuser, and one in five of the abusers were under age themselves. 12% of the confirmed cases reported in 1996 involved sexual abuse. An estimated 10-15% of males and 20-25% of females reported they were sexually abused by age 18 (2). Most sexually abused children never come to the attention of the authorities. There may be no physical signs of harm, but there is always the intense shame, and secrecy is often maintained, even by the adults who know of the abuse, for fear of destroying a family. There is evidence emerging that as many as one in three incidents of child sexual abuse are not remembered by adults who experience them, and that the younger the child was at the time of the abuse, and the closer the relationship to the abuser, the more likely one is not to remember, claims Linda Williams. Convicted rape and sexual assault offenders serving time in State prisons  report that two-thirds of their victims were under the age 18, and 58% of those (nearly 4 in 10 imprisoned violent sex offenders) said their victims were aged 12 or younger. In 90% of the rapes of children less than 12 years old, the child knew the offender. Sixty percent took place in the victim’s home or at the home of a friend, neighbor, or relative. Two-thirds of sex offenders in state prisons victimized a child. For offenders imprisoned for violent crimes against victims younger than 18 (1994), 15% were convicted of forcible rape, 57% were convicted of other types of sexual assault (lewd acts of forcible sodomy, statutory rape, etc.), about thirty percent reported attacks on more than one child, and more than half the victims were younger than 12. Out of 277 inmate interviews of all prisoners convicted of rape or sexual assault, two-thirds victimized children. Three out of four child victims were female, prisoners convicted of attacking children were mostly male, 97%, and about 22% of the child sex offenders reported having been sexually abused themselves during childhood. Half of the women raped were younger than 18 and 20% were victimized by their father (3). Children often fail to report because of the fear that disclosure will bring consequences even worse than being victimized again. The victim may fear consequences from the family or feel guilty for consequences to the perpetrator. Victims may also have a feeling that â€Å"something is wrong with me,† and that the abused is their fault. The impact of child sexual abuse is tremendous. It is estimated that there are 60 million survivors of childhood sexual abuse in America, today. Approximately 31% of women in prison state they have been abused as children and about 95% of teenage prostitutes have been sexually abused. Young girls who are forced to have sex are three times more likely to develop psychiatric disorders or abuse alcohol and drugs in adulthood, than girls who are not sexually abused (4). There are two different types of indicators of sexual abuse, physical indicators and behavioral indicators. Some of the physical indicators are: 1)Torn, stained or bloody underclothes. 2)Frequent, unexplained sore throats, yeast or urinary infections. 3) Bruises or bleeding from external genitalia, vagina, or anal region. 4) Sexual transmitted disease. 5) Pregnancy. Some of the behavioral indicators are: 1)The victim’s disclosure of sexual abuse. 2)Disturbed sleeping pattern. 3)Difficulty in walking or sitting. 4)Avoidance of undressing or wearing extra layers of clothes. 5)Sudden decline in school performance. The two prerequisites for this form of maltreatment include sexual arousal to children and the willingness to act on this arousal. Factors that may contribute to the willingness include alcohol or drug abuse, poor impulse control, and a belief that the sexual behaviors are acceptable and not harmful to the child. The chances of abuse are higher if the child is developmentally handicapped or vulnerable in some other way. Often there is no physical evidence of sexual abuse for a doctor to find. In fact, physical examinations of children in cases suspected sexual abuse supply grounds for further suspicion only 15-20% of the time (4). Physical abuse is the nonaccidental infliction of physical injury to a child, such as cut, bruises, welts, and broken bones. The abuser is usually a family member or other caretaker, and is more likely to be male. In 1996,  24% of the confirmed cases of U.S. child abuse involved physical abuse (4). A rare form of physical abuse is Munchausen syndrome by proxy, in which a caretaker, most often the mother, seeks attention by making the child sick or appear to be sick. Skulls and other bone fractures are often seen in young abused children, and in fact head injuries are the leading cause of death in abused children. A few physical indicators of physical abuse are: 1)Unexplained welts or bruises on the face, upper arms, throat, thighs or lower back in unusual patterns or shapes which suggest use of an instrument (electric cord, belt buckle) on an infant in various stages of healing that are seen after absences, weekends, or vacations. 2)Rope burns. 3)Bald patches. 4)Refusal to undress for gym. Some of the behavioral indicators of physical abuse are: 1)Behavioral extremes- withdrawal, aggression, depression. 2)Unbelievable or inconsistent explanation for the injury. 3)Fear of physical contact-shrinking back if touched. 4)Fear of medical help or examination. The usual physical abuse scenario involves a parent who loses control and lashes out at a child. The trigger could be a dirty diaper or crying. Unlike nonabusive parent, who may become upset or angry with their children from  time to time but are genuinely loving, abusive parents tend to harbor deep-rooted negative feelings toward their children. Emotional abuse, also known as psychological abuse, according to Richard D. Krugman, â€Å"has been defined as the rejection, ignoring, criticizing, isolation, or terrorizing or children, all of which have the effect of eroding their self-esteem†. Emotional abuse usually expresses itself in verbal attacks involving rejection, belittlement, humiliation, and so forth. Emotional abuse also includes bizarre forms of punishment, such as confinement of a child in a dark closet. Often psychological abuse accompanies other types of abuse and is difficult to prove. It is rarely reported and accounted for only 6% of the confirmed 1996 cases (3). A few physical indicators of emotional abuse are: 1)Eating disorders- obesity or anorexia. 2)Nervous disorders- rashes, facial tics, hives, etc. 3)Speech disorders- stuttering, stammering, etc. 4)Flat or bald spots on head (infants). A few behavioral indicators of psychological abuse are: 1)Age inappropriate behaviors- bedwetting, soiling, etc. 2)Habit disorders- biting, rocking, etc. 3)Cruel behavior- seeming to get pleasure from hurting another child, adult, or animal. 4)Overreaction to mistakes. Emotional abuse can happen in many different settings: at school, at home, on sports teams, and so on. The forth and final forms of child abuse is neglect. Neglect is the failure to satisfy a child’s basic needs and can assume many forms. Emotional neglect is the failure to satisfy a child’s normal emotional needs or behavior that damages a child’s normal psychological and emotional development, physical neglect is the failure to provide adequate food, shelter, clothing, or supervision, and educational neglect includes the allowance of chronic truancy, failure to enroll a child of mandatory school age in school, and failure to attend to a special educational need. Failing to see that a child receives proper schooling or medical care is also considered neglect. In 1996, neglect was confirmed in over half of the abuse cases (3). Some physical indicators of neglect include: 1)Poor hygiene- lice, diaper rash, body odor, etc. 2)Lack of immunizations. 3)Untreated injury or illness. 4)Poor state of clothing. A few behavioral indicators of neglect include: 1)Chronic hunger or tiredness. 2)Assuming adult responsibilities. 3)Unusual school attendance. 4)No social relationships. Many cases of neglect occur because the parent experiences strong negative feelings toward the child. At other times, the parent may truly care for the child, but lack the ability to adequately provide for the child’s needs due to being handicapped by drug abuse, depression, mental retardation, or other problems. As a result, their physical, emotional, social, and mental development is hindered. Young children remain at high risk for loss of life. Between 1995 and 1997, 78% of these children were less than five years of age at the time of their death, while 38% were under one year of age. As for cause of death, 44% of deaths resulted from neglect, 51% from physical abuse, and 5% from a combination of neglectful and physically abusive parenting. Approximately 41% of these deaths occurred to children known to child protective service agencies as current or prior clients (5). Abuse investigators are often a group effort involving medical personnel, police officers, social workers, and others. Careful questioning of the parents is crucial, as is interviewing the child. The investigators must ensure, however, that their questioning does not further traumatize the child. A physical examination for signs of abuse or neglect is, always necessary, and may also include blood tests, x-rays, and other procedures. If the child has sisters or brothers, the authorities must determine whether they have been abused as well. Signs of physical abuse are discovered in about 20% of the sisters and brothers of abused children (4). Child abuse can have lifelong consequences. Research shows that abused children and adolescents are more likely, for instance, suffer emotional problems, do poorly in school, abuse drugs and alcohol, and attempt suicide. As adults they have often have trouble establishing intimate relationships. Notification of the appropriate authorities, treatment of the child’s  injuries, and protecting the child from further harm are the immediate priorities in child abuse! Sources All Figures Based Upon The Following: 1.A Nation’s Shame: Fatal Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States. 2.Child Maltreatment 1998: Reports from the States to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. 3.http://www.prevent-abuse-now.com/stats.htm 4.http://www.prevent-abuse-now.com/stats2.htm 5.Wang, C.T. & Daro, D. (1998). Current Trends in Child Abuse Reporting and Fatalities: The results of the 1997 Annual Fifty State Survey.

The Definition of White Collar Crime

In this paper the exciting criminal phenomenon known as white-collar crime will be discussed. Corporate Crime and Computer Crime will be discussed in detail. Crime preventative agencies such as the NCPC (National Crime Prevention Council) will also be researched. The late Professor Edwin Sutherland coined the term white-collar crime about 1941. Sutherland defined white-collar crime as â€Å"a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation† (Siegel 337) White-collar crime includes, by way of example, such acts as promulgating false or misleading advertising, illegal exploitation of employees, mislabeling of goods, violation of weights and measures statutes, conspiring to fix prices, evading corporate taxes, computer crimes, and so on. White-collar crime is most distinctively defined in terms of attitudes toward those who commit it. These crimes are punishable by law, however it is generally regarded by the courts and by sections of the general public as much less reprehensible than crimes usually punished by the courts. The other types of crime are blue-collar offenses, which are predominately crimes of the under-privileged. White-collar crimes are punished far less harshly than blue-collar crimes, which shows societies attitudes towards the two sections of society. White-collar crime is attractive to criminals because it brings material rewards with little or no loss of status. (Taft & England 201) For some, white-collar crime is not viewed as a â€Å"crime† at all, because of its non-violent nature. Violent crime has an immediate and observable impact on its victim which raises the ire of the public, whereas white-collar crime frequently goes undetected or is viewed as a bending of the rules. Yet white-collar crime can create the greater havoc. The victim of an assault will recover; however, the impact of a fraud can last a lifetime. This is especially true when the elderly are victimized, as they have little or no hope of re-establishing themselves in financial terms. Contrary to the popular belief, white-collar criminals are thieves and the methods used to conceal their offenses are both artful and ingenious. Concealment of the crime is always an objective of the offender, and it becomes an element of the crime itself. Because it is an artful form of deceit, which is skillfully disguised, the investigation itself is often long and laborious as far as proving criminal intent is concerned. The offence itself may be disguised in a maze of legitimate transactions, which are quite proper if viewed in isolation; however, the cumulative effect is the commission of a criminal offence. From the standpoint of the criminal, the ideal white- collar crime is one that will never be recognized or detected as a criminal act. Corporate crime is the type of crime that is engaged in by individuals and groups of individuals who become involved in criminal conspiracies designed to improve the market share or profitability of their corporations. ( Siegel 338) Corporations are legal entities, which can be and are subjected to criminal processes. There is today little restriction on the range of crimes for which corporations may be held responsible, though a corporation cannot be imprisoned. The most controversial issue in regard to the study of corporate crime revolves around the question of whether corporate crime is â€Å"really crime. † Corporate officials, politicians, and many criminologists object to the criminological study of corporate criminality on the strictest sense of the word. The conventional and strictly legal definition of crime is that it is an act, which violates the criminal law and is thereby punishable by a criminal court. From this perspective a criminal is one who has been convicted in a criminal court. Given these widely accepted notions of crime and criminals, it is argued that what is called corporate crime is not really crime and should not be considered as such by either the public or criminologists. (Hochstedler 22) It does appear that now in recent times society has had a growing concern about white-collar and corporate crime. Studies have indicated that the public now judges white-collar criminality to be more serious than it had been in the past, people now have lost confidence in the people running major companies, and most American corporate executives are believed to be dishonest. The public's concern with corporate crime has grown recently, but has been evident for several years. I will use one of the most memorable corporate crime cases in history; The Ford Pinto Case to prove my statement. (Cullen/Maakestad/Cavender 43) The product liability lawsuit and appeal titled Grimshaw v. Ford Motor Company is a case in point and ought to be read by everyone. Grimshaw is an example of the type of thing that can happen when an industry insolates itself from competition. The Pinto affair has very important lessons for us all. Its story can teach us much about the power of huge corporations and what corporations can do when they face no real competition. It carries an important lesson about how the minds of those who run the world's colossal corporations work. In November of 1971 the Grays purchased a new 1972 Pinto hatchback manufactured by Ford in October of 1971. The Grays had trouble with the car from the outset. During the first few months of ownership, they had to return the car to the dealer for repairs a number of times. Their car problems included excessive gas and oil consumption, down shifting of the automatic transmission, lack of power, and occasional stalling. It was later learned that the stalling and excessive fuel consumption were caused by a heavy carburetor float. On May 28, Mrs. Gray, accompanied by 13-year-old Richard Grimshaw, set out in the Pinto from Anaheim for Barstow to meet Mr. Gray. The Pinto was then six months old and had been driven approximately 3,000 miles. Mrs. Gray stopped in San Bernardino for gasoline, got back onto the freeway (Interstate 15) and proceeded toward her destination at 60 – 65 miles per hour. As she approached the Route 30 off-ramp where traffic was congested, she moved from the outer fast lane to the middle lane of the freeway. Shortly after this lane change, the Pinto suddenly stalled and coasted to a halt in the middle lane. It was later established that the carburetor float had become so saturated with gasoline that it suddenly sank, opening the float chamber and causing the engine to flood and stall. A car traveling immediately behind the Pinto was able to swerve and pass it but the driver of a 1962 Ford Galaxie was unable to avoid colliding with the Pinto. The Galaxie had been traveling from 50 to 55 miles per hour but before the impact had been braked to a speed of 28 to 37 miles per hour. At the moment of impact, the Pinto caught fire and its interior was engulfed in flames. According to the plaintiff's expert, the impact of the Galaxie had driven the Pinto's gas tank forward and caused it to be punctured by the flange or one of the bolts on the differential housing so that fuel sprayed from the punctured tank and entered the passenger compartment through gaps resulting from the separation of the rear wheel well sections from the floor pan. By the time the Pinto came to rest after the collision, both occupants had sustained serious burns. When they emerged from the vehicle, their clothing was almost completely burned off. Mrs. Gray died a few days later of congestive heart failure as a result of the burns. Grimshaw managed to survive but only through heroic medical measures. He has undergone numerous and extensive surgeries and skin grafts and was expected to have to undergo additional surgeries over the next 10 years. He lost portions of several fingers on his left hand and portions of his left ear, hile his face required many skin grafts from various portions of his body. This graphic account of these events is needed to grasp the full impact of this tragic situation which could have been avoided by Ford for very minimal cost. Each Pinto could have been repaired for $4-$8 a piece. Management knew of these defects but still decided to produce and release the Pinto to the public. The idea for the Pinto, as has been noted, was conceived by Mr. Iacocco [sic], the Executive Vice President of Ford. The feasibility study was conducted under the supervision of Mr. Robert Alexander, Vice President of Car Engineering. Ford's Product Planning Committee, whose members included Mr. Iacocca, Mr. Robert Alexander, and Mr. Harold MacDonald, Ford's Group Vice President of Car Engineering, approved the Pinto's concept and made the decision to go forward with the project. Harley Copp, a former Ford engineer and executive in charge of the crash testing program, testified that the highest level of Ford's management made the decision to go forward with the production of the Pinto, knowing that the gas tank was vulnerable to uncture at low rear impact speeds creating a significant risk of death or injury from fire and knowing that fixes were feasible at nominal cost. He testified that management's decision was based on the cost savings, which would inure from omitting the fixes. This was the corporation's outright trade of human life for profit. The jury in this case brought in a verdict for the plaintiffs in excess of $128 million of which $125 million were punitive damages. There is another very important point to be made by this case. Ford knew that the Pinto was going to kill or burn people because of its design, but, because of the â€Å"cost savings which would inure from omitting the fixes,† Ford decided to let it go. Consider carefully exactly what Ford Motor Company was doing here. One could argue that Ford was conducting cost-benefit analysis. To the Ford executives, the benefits were clear, calculable, and immediately available. Ford would save a few dollars on each Pinto manufactured. The costs would accrue in the future and would not be paid by Ford. Unfortunately, the costs were the lives and permanent injuries of nameless and faceless future consumers. The Pinto would appear to be a prime example of laying off costs. The suffering, the destroyed lives and families apparently were of minor consideration in the calculations when Ford performed the cost-benefit analysis. Corporate crime has also been linked to political leaders in this country. Corporate crime is a crime of power and profit for the offenders. Large and powerful corporations who have the support of prominent political leaders can be difficult to prosecute in corporate crime cases. At the Progress & Freedom Foundation conference held at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D. C. , Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich (R-Georgia) was asked why he spent so much time addressing the issue of street crime and violence, while ignoring the issue of corporate crime and violence. Gingrich answered, â€Å"If I went around the country and said, ‘Vote for us and there will be no more white-collar fraud,' the average voter will say, ‘I don't think he gets it. ‘† But corporate crime is more than just white-collar fraud. And one reason that Gingrich doesn't address the issue of corporate crime might be because one of the corporations that has brought him to power is Southwire Co. of Carrollton, Georgia. Southwire has close ties to Gingrich, it dominates the political economy of Carroll County, where Gingrich's political career was launched, and it is a corporation with a criminal record. Individuals affiliated with Southwire Co. , including its chief executive officer, Roy Richards, and its president, James Richards, have donated more than $18,000 to Gingrich's campaigns for Congress during the past ten years. According to the Los Angeles Times, James Richards has also donated 80,200 to GOPAC, the political action committee spearhearded by Gingrich. Computer technology has introduced new factors concerning the types of perpetrators, the forms of assets threatened, and embezzlement methods. ( Radzinowicz 357) Computer crimes generally fall into five categories: 1) theft of services 2) use of computer data for personal gain 3) unauthorized use of computers employed for various types of financial processing 4) property theft by computer 5) placing viruses to destroy data. The terms â€Å"computer misuse† and â€Å"computer abuse† are also used frequently, but they have significantly different implications. Criminal law recognizes the concepts of unlawful or fraudulent intent and of claim of right; thus, any criminal laws that relate to computer crime would need to distinguish between accidental misuse of a computer system, negligent misuse of a computer system and intended, unauthorized access to or misuse of a computer system, amounting to computer abuse. Annoying behavior must be distinguished from criminal behavior in law. History has shown that a broad range of persons commits computer crime: students, amateurs, terrorists and members of organized crime groups. What distinguishes them is the nature of the crime committed. The individual who accesses a computer system without further criminal intent is much different from the employee of a financial institution who skims funds from customer accounts. The typical skill level of the computer criminal is a topic of controversy. Some claim that skill level is not an indicator of a computer criminal, while others claim that potential computer criminals are bright, eager, highly motivated subjects willing to accept a technological challenge, characteristics that are also highly desirable in an employee in the data-processing field. According to a number of studies, however, employees represent the largest threat, and indeed computer crime has often been referred to as an insider crime. One study estimated that 90 per cent of economic computer crimes were committed by mployees of the victimized companies. A recent survey in North America and Europe indicated that 73 per cent of the risk to computer security was attributable to internal sources and only 23 per cent to external criminal activity. The American Bar Association conducted a survey in 1987: of 300 corporations and government agencies, 72 claimed to have been the victim of computer-related crime in the 12-month period prior to the survey, sustaining losses estimated to range from $ 145 million to $ 730 million. In 1991, a survey of security incidents involving computer-related crime was conducted at 3,000 Virtual Address Extension (VAX) sites in Canada, Europe and the United States of America. Seventy-two per cent of the respondents said that a security incident had occurred within the previous 12-month period; 43 per cent indicated that the security incident they had sustained had been a criminal offence. A further 8 per cent were uncertain whether they had sustained a security incident. Similar surveys conducted around the world report significant and widespread abuse and loss. Computer criminals have gained notoriety in the media and appear to have gained more social acceptability than traditional criminals. The suggestion that the computer criminal is a less harmful individual, however, ignores the obvious. The current threat is real. The future threat will be directly determined by the advances made in computer technology. Although it is difficult to quantify the scope of the computer crime problem, public reports have estimated that computer crime costs us between five hundred million and ten billion dollars per year. The Computer Security Institute has surveyed 428 information security specialists in Fortune 500 companies; 42% of the respondents indicated that there was an unauthorized use of their computer systems in the last year. Only a small portion of computer crimes come to the attention of the law enforcement authorities. While it is possible to give an accurate description of the various types of computer offences committed, it has proved difficult to give an accurate, reliable overview of the extent of losses and the actual number of criminal offences. At its Colloquium on Computer Crimes and Other Crimes against Information Technology, held at Wurzburg, Germany, from 5 to 8 October 1992, AIDP released a report on computer crime based on reports of its member countries that estimated that only 5 per cent of computer crime was reported to law enforcement authorities. Law enforcement officials indicate from their experience that recorded computer crime statistics do not represent the actual number of offences; the term â€Å"dark figure†, used by criminologists to refer to unreported crime, has been applied to undiscovered computer crimes. The invisibility of computer crimes is based on several factors. First, sophisticated technology, that is, the immense, compact storage capacity of the computer and the speed with which computers function, ensures that computer crime is very difficult to detect. In contrast to most traditional areas of crime, unknowing victims are often informed after the fact by law enforcement officials that they have sustained a computer crime. Secondly, investigating officials often do not have sufficient training to deal with problems in the complex environment of data processing. Thirdly, many victims do not have a contingency plan for responding to incidents of computer crime, and they may even fail to acknowledge that a security problem exists. The dynamic nature of computer technology, compounded by specific considerations and complications in applying traditional laws to this new technology, dictate that the law enforcement, legal and judicial communities must develop new skills to be able to respond adequately to the challenge presented by computer crime. The growing sophistication of telecommunications systems and the high level of expertise of many system operators complicate significantly the task of regulatory and legal intervention by law enforcement agencies. If the law enforcement community is expected to deal with the problem of computer crime, adequate training sessions must be implemented. To address computer crime, most police departments are allocating a greater proportion of resources to their economic or fraud investigation divisions, since many types of computer crime occur in the course of business transactions or affect financial assets. Accordingly, it is important for investigators to know about business transactions and about the use of computer in business. The ideal situation is to have investigators with not only solid criminal investigation backgrounds but also supplementary technical knowledge. This is similar to the traditional approach, where many police forces ensure that their fraud investigators, although not necessarily accountants, possess a thorough understanding of financial and business record keeping.