Water Management in Yellow River Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Water Management in Yellow River - Essay Example The water assets in China are wastefully utilized, over-dispensed and coarsely dirtied by mechanical and human waste to the degree of slaughtering segments of enormous waterways like the Yellow River (Ma, 1999). Furthermore, there is tremendous over-siphoning and impractical utilization of groundwater assets; lakes are canvassed in pools of waste; various amphibian species have been wiped out, with a large group of other unfriendly direct effects on the wellbeing of the environment and people boundless in the nation. China is home to sixteen of the twenty most dirtied urban areas around the world; guaranteeing that every single significant watershed of the country experience the ill effects of broad contamination. Desertification, because of an excess of ground and surface water withdrawal, is progressively overwhelming the Northern locale of China; a district tremendously subject to the Yellow River (Ma, 1999). The social issue confronting the area includes treatment of the removal of squanders by nearby occupants too neighborhood businesses. The thickly populated districts bring about large scale manufacturing of waste items which are improperly dumped into the waterway. These issues not just represent a colossal danger to the political dependability of the nation yet it is additionally an immense danger to the country’s monetary turn of events. The administration is spending generous measures of cash on social insurance issues because of significant ailment flare-ups in the vigorously dirtied zones of the nation (Boyle, 2007). As indicated by Eng and Ma (2006), significant organizations are canceling their undertakings because of water worries just as expanding inside clashes over the quality and portion of water assets. These occasions have brought about new political weights on the territorial and focal governments to fix their battle with the flow water the executives issues. A 2005 Chinese Government report uncovered that fifty thousand earth related fights happened, the greater part of which rotated around

Organisational and leadership management Case Study - 1

Hierarchical and authority the executives - Case Study Example Their significant point is to feature themselves in the center and lower layers of the populace to increase greatest market infiltration and piece of the overall industry. Going into the historical backdrop of the association, it was established in 1965 in West Yorkshire England, and it is there just that their base camp are available. The significant items that they are offering their tremendous client base are staple, general merchandize and budgetary administrations; a space that is not quite the same as their central business. Related Dairies and Farms Stores Limited was shaped in 1949; the organization ASDA was framed after a merger concurrence with three market chains in 1965. After a great deal of changes in the item base, combined with mergers, acquisitions and enhancements, they began their engaged methodology towards broadening their food retailers vision forward. This was done in 1989, by purchasing immense stores of Rivals, Gateway Superstores for an incredible some of 750 million pounds. Issue of selling such a large number of items emerged, which are experienced by raising capital from investors twice. The excursion of then coupling themselves with the American mammoth Wal-Mart began where the CEO of the organization even sent individuals to the association so as to get to the promoting and innovation base that their global adversaries were utilizing. The takeover of this British association by the US monster Wal-Mart, occurred on 26th July, 1999; this was the point at which the association was i ntending to assume control over Kingfisher plc. (ASDA, 2009) The association is essentially gloating to give item and administration both to its qualities clients. It is a greater amount of less in the center of the item administration continuum, sliding more towards to item end. This is on the grounds that the association has constructed a brand name in offering quality support as far as retail lodging to its clients. This requires high caliber of item. Then again, because of their sound image name, they have this part of after deals administration that is being related with the association, the clients are fulfilled that their questions would be met with. The component we will concentrate on in the task is the item direction of the association. It is a publically possessed association where offers are being exchanged on various stock trades. The organization brags of a salary of 638 million pounds and is as of now utilizing more than 143 thousand in its association, serving the entire of the United Kingdom. They have been known for their promoting efforts based of reasonable/low value items that have kept the opposition alive in the retailer advertise. Examination OF THE ORGANIZATION The association gives retail to its clients. Aside from the essential basic food item items and retail chains that it is giving its clients, the organization has additionally differentiated and moved into the monetary part showcase. They likewise offer monetary types of assistance to the clients with the assistance of the auxiliary associations. Be that as it may, the focal point of the examination is the retailer area of the association's product offering. There are a few elements for picking the General Merchandize and basic food item area, in short the retailer business, of the organization. One of the most unmistakable and significant one is that this segment has been created over a huge timeframe. The

Bureaucratic Leadership Guide Definition, Qualities, Pros Cons, Examples

Bureaucratic Leadership Guide Definition, Qualities, Pros Cons, Examples UNDERSTANDING BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP “There are no secrets to success. It is the result of preparation, hard work, and learning from failure.” â€" Colin PowellThe word bureaucracy doesn’t necessarily make people smile with joy. While the bureaucratic leadership might have a bit of a bad reputation, it is one of the oldest leadership styles in the world.The efficient, rule-based leadership framework has proven to be a smooth way to govern and to organize societies. © Shutterstock.com | pathdocThe guide will delve into the history of bureaucratic leadership in terms of the definition of the word and the different concepts that have guided it. We’ll then explore the leadership framework’s core characteristics and the traits a bureaucratic leader must have. Finally, before we examine a few examples of these famous leaders, we’ll outline the advantages and disadvantages of bureaucratic leadership.UNDERSTANDING BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIPBefore we examine the framework and the characteristics of bureaucratic leadership, it’s auspicious to delve deeper into what the word stands for and the findings of the two main leadership studies and theories that have had an impact on the leadership model.The definition of bureaucracyThe term bureaucracy reveals some of the essential characteristics of the leadership model. The Cambridge dictionary defines the word as,“a system for controlling or managing a country, company, or organization that is operate d by a large number of officials employed to follow rules carefully”.The term is derived from the French word bureau, which stands for office or desk, and the Greek suffix kratia, which denotes the power of. Bureaucracy is therefore in essence “the power of office”.Interestingly, the term has been used pejoratively from the start. It was first used by a French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay, who had been quoted as saying, “We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called bureaumania.” The negative view of public administration and bureaucracy continued until the mid-19th century.The slightly unfavorable view of bureaucracy is shown in the definition of the word bureaucratic. The Cambridge dictionary defines the term as, “involving complicated rules and processes that make something slow and difficult”. Furthermore, if you Google the word bureaucratic, the search engine will suggest a definition, which goes fu rther to state, “over-concerned with procedure at the expense of efficiency or common sense”.Nonetheless, while the term was first used in France in the mid-18th century, the history of using a bureaucratic system goes further back. The organised use of the administrative system, which is essentially what bureaucracy is, has its roots back in Ancient Egypt. The Ancient Chinese society also established a bureaucratic system, largely laid out by the teaching of Confucius, who believed in the importance of rituals.Throughout the historic use of bureaucratic system and the different ways the model has been defined, three core elements have stayed at the centre of bureaucracy. These are:Officialism â€" The systems show a lack of flexibility and initiative.Redtape â€" There are high levels of adherence to rules and formalities.Proliferation â€" The systems tend to expand rapidly.Despite the pejorative view of bureaucracy, it has been an important part of running societies. Throughout its history, the bureaucratic systems have undergone reformation and restructure, often with little influence. Perhaps, the theorization of bureaucracy was almost inevitable. Theories shaping bureaucratic leadershipAs the bureaucratic systems began taking over modern societies, many philosophers and thinkers began examining the frameworks influencing bureaucracy. Influential thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx have examined the role of bureaucracy as part of a functional society.But in terms of leadership theory, Max Weber and George Ritzer have perhaps been the most dominant in describing the style.Max Weber’s leadership stylesThe German sociologist Max Weber’s book Economy and Society outlined the ideal and the least ideal ways a society could form. In the study of power and leadership, Weber identified bureaucracy as one traditional form of organizing.Weber’s theory focused on three separate types of legitimate power: legal-rational authority, charismatic author ity, and traditional authority.In the three-type model, the bureaucratic leadership fell under the first type of legitimate power. Under the system, the subordinates would follow normative rules and adhere to the leader’s authority in a strict manner. But instead of having the power attached to a person, as in the charismatic leadership style, the power came from the position, not from the leader’s characteristics or the ability to lead.Furthermore, he distinguished between two types of leadership: transformational, which would include charismatic leadership, and transactional, which relates to bureaucratic leaders. The obvious differences of these two types are outlined well in the below image: Based on: Owen Miller’s websiteAccording to Weber, bureaucratization was an integral part of the rational-legal authority as well and he believed it to play a key role in the success of the Western society. He said, “Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally dominating through knowledge”. While he didn’t necessarily consider it the best leadership style, he nonetheless, thought it to be an indispensable part of the modern world.Weber’s critique of the leadership style focused on the increased rationalization of human existence. He believed it could create a ‘soulless’ system of governance, where individual freedoms are hindered and everyone is viewed through a rule-based rationale. In his writings, he called this system the “iron cage”, which can trap individuals into a system of efficiency and control.The bureaucratic leadership framework is based on specific competencies of the leader and the subordinates, according to Weber. This means the bureaucratic syst em always has a rigid division of labor and a clear structure of command, which is enabled by specific and strict rules.In addition, the people within the system are assigned to the roles that best fit their skills and bureaucratic framework requires a continuous development of both the leader and the subordinates. Because of these requirements, the systems tend to focus on rules, laws and regulations as the basis of power and functionality.Weber’s theory of bureaucratic leadership was expanded in the 1950s by an American sociologist Robert K. Merton. His Social Theory and Social Structure agreed with Weber’s analysis, but placed more emphasis on solving the dysfunctional nature of the model. Merton’s critique focused on the inflexibility of the style and believed the bureaucratic leader’s emphasis of formality over individualism would be a problem for the style in the future.George Ritzer’s McDonaldizationAside from Weber, bureaucratic leadership is closely tied to the co ncept called McDonaldization. The idea was put forward by an American sociologist in 1993 when he published The McDonaldization of Society. In fact, Ritzer saw McDonaldization as the process of rationalization, which Weber linked to bureaucratic leadership. Indeed, Ritzer theorized that his concept is similar to Weber’s expect that it fits the modern, globalised organizations better.Ritzer’s McDonaldization theory is comprised of four key elements: efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control.Efficiency refers to the optimal method of achieving specific objectives. The aim is to organize each aspect of the organization in a way that enhances efficiency; in terms of McDonalds, this would be the minimization of time in serving customers.The second key element is about having quantifiable objectives. An organization under the bureaucratic leadership framework wants to have objectives the subordinates must achieve to ensure you can measure success. For example, McDonalds w ants subordinates to deliver as many products to customers as possible, not necessarily focusing on the quality of service.The framework also supports the idea of predictability, which essentially means that organizations offer the same service and value everywhere. If you consider McDonalds, the experience of eating in the fast food service follows exactly the similar procedure, whether you eat in the US or Japan. The organizations focus should therefore be in creating repetitive, routine-like processes across the system.Finally, the fourth element of McDonaldization refers to control. This essentially is about technology and how standardization of employees in different circumstances establishes a cultural hybridization. Since the service is the same in Japan and the US, the cultural experience, together with the consumption pattern, unifies into a single system, in this case the Western cultural hegemony.The below YouTube clip features Ritzer discussing the elements of McDonaldiz ation in the modern context: THE CORE ELEMENTS OF BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIPBureaucratic leadership is based on structure and it requires a clear framework to support its functions. Unlike with certain other leadership theories, such as charismatic leadership, the framework is rather ease to follow and to set up.In this section, we’ll examine the core of the bureaucratic leadership framework. First, we’ll outline the six tenets of the model laid down by Max Weber. After, we’ll examine a set of four elements that form the basic requirements for a modern bureaucratic framework.Weber’s six tenetsIn Economy and Society, Weber identified the ideal types of governing and leading different organizations. As mentioned above, big chunk of the work was dedicated to the study of bureaucratization of society. He examined the different elements of bureaucracy and how they are organized, creating a theory of civil society, which has been used and analyzed ever since.Furthermore, a big part o f the analysis focused on the conditions and elements required for bureaucratic leadership to work efficiently. He described six tenets that are crucial for the framework.1. Strict and formal hierarchyBureaucratic leadership relies on a strict and formal hierarchy, which guarantees members within the organization are aware of the structure. The authority is organized in a manner that guarantees a higher level of leadership controls each level of subordinates. Which in turn is controlled by another layer of leaders.The formal hierarchy ensures authority is clearly defined and the command structure works like a well-oiled machine. The strict and formal hierarchy is the basis for the bureaucratic leadership framework. It guarantees the organization can plan efficiently and ensures the decision-making is centralized.[slideshare id=59943859doc=st-habit-blog-version-final-160323162100w=710h=400]2. Immutable rules, regulations and laws to control the organizationThe formal hierarchy can be withheld in place through a set of rules. A bureaucratic system requires defined rules that will control the structure and keep it in place. These two elements are the cornerstone of the model, because they both complement each other and provide support for each other.The rules will provide consistency within the framework as well. Since the rules define the operations from small tasks to bigger decisions. The bureaucratic system is known for its, sometimes laborious, rules, but it is this that creates the framework for leadership.It shouldn’t be seen as a burdensome aspect either, as the leader is more able to manage subordinates in a just manner, as the framework provides consistency in execution.3. People are organized according to specialtiesBureaucratic leadership is not always associated with high level of skills, but it emphasizes knowledge and expertise in its framework. The system isn’t about knowing the right people or being the best at selling yourself to a position. The system always tries to combine the best talent with the right position.According to Weber, the function of an efficient bureaucratic system is to focus on specialists. People are directed to roles that fit their skillset perfectly, as this can guarantee they are able to excel and help the organization to succeed.Furthermore, the bureaucratic leadership framework establishes these roles and units clearly. The job specialization and skillset required to perform them are defined in a manner that makes finding the right person as smooth as possible.4. Two key missionsAccording to Weber, the bureaucratic organization has to have either of these two key missions:Up-focus mission, which means the organization is aimed at serving the stockholders, the board, or any other such agency that empowers it to operate. The organization wants to ensure the benefits of labor flow towards the ‘outside’ of the organization to secure further support from the source.In-focus mission, which puts the organization itself as the focus of the operations. Under this mission the aim is the provide benefits to the organization and the people within it, such as creating more profit, improve the market share or enhance cash stream.5. Impersonal styleWhile certain leadership frameworks put the persons in the front, such as servant leadership or charismatic leadership, the bureaucratic system is purposely impersonal. The personalities and the individual achievements are not at the core of the system, the main focus should be on the organization and the performance. The individual takes a lesser role.The reason behind the thinking is about consistency and equal treatment. According to Weber, this kind of impersonal approach can guarantee the operations and functions perform rationally and are not affected by emotions or individual differences.6. Hiring based on technical proficiencyJust as the subordinates are directed to roles that suit their individual skillsets, the hiring in a bure aucratic leadership model is based solely on technical proficiency. What this means is that the person who has the skills required in the specific role will always get the role. As long as you are able to do the job appropriately, then you are guaranteed the role.This also results in the companies moving people from one role to another as the skills develop and change. The bureaucratic system doesn’t have much movement, because it favors in-house knowledge and understanding of the framework in place.Four core elementsFrom the six tenets outlined by Weber arises four core characteristics of a bureaucratic leadership framework. In order for the model to work efficiently, these elements must be at the core of all decision-making and operational efficiency.First, the system requires strict and systematic discipline on the subordinates. This is established by the rules and guidelines and it typically involves every aspect of the organization. Bureaucratic leadership models don’t only consider how the decisions are made within the organization; it also established guidelines on how the work will be done and how employees must conduct themselves at all stages. For example, things such as dress code can be strictly imposed on the subordinates.The framework also establishes a clear position of power for leaders. Unlike laissez faire leadership, the subordinates don’t need to second-guess who within the organization has the power within the organization. The clarity of hierarchy is essential, as it guarantees people don’t step outside the line or make decisions that they are not entitled to make. Furthermore, it makes it easy for the leader as well, since their roles are clear and the expectations are laid out.From this arises the third essential element, which means that within the system, the authority belongs to the leader and the subordinates should obey the leader. The system is strict in imposing this and subordinates that try to step out of the line are n ot usually greeted with much warmth. Therefore, the model does require an ability to follow the rules and take orders from the subordinates.Finally, the fourth key element required under the framework deals with the rewards system within the organization. The rewards and promotions should be based on the subordinates’ ability to conform to the rules. A bureaucratic framework rewards specialty and it congratulates a job well done. Because of the impersonal nature, the focus is not on the person or their development as an employee. The only important part for the organization is the performance. If the employee performs as is required, then the rewards will follow. Again, the clarity of this can create a well-structured machine that operates efficiently.THE QUALITIES OF A BUREAUCRATIC LEADERThe above outlined the framework required for the bureaucratic leadership. But it’s also beneficial to study the qualities and traits a bureaucratic leader should possess. The style can be rath er difficult to master.Although the focus is on performance and not the individual, specific skills will help the bureaucratic leader to ensure the organization follows the model and succeeds under this leadership style.Below are five traits a bureaucratic leader should focus on in order to excel in this specific style.Detail-orientedThe leader must be detail-oriented, since the structure is based on rules and the enforcement of those. This means the leader must be able to stay on top of miniscule details and to ensure guidelines are followed at all times. It might sound dramatic, but the framework does not allow even the slightest deviance from the established model.Being detail-oriented is among the traits the majority of people believe are strictly something innate. For a number of people, the ability to focus on micromanagement is a skill you either have or don’t have. But the trait can be improved and developed further.First, the fun thing about improving your detail-oriented mind is to train it by playing games. Science has shown that games such as puzzles and memory games can improve focus and memory, both of which are essential skills in noticing detail.The second step is to focus on how you approach things in your life, especially in terms of accomplishing tasks. The below video outlines the three key elements detail oriented people do when they are faced with tasks. As the video noted, you should always plan your approach well beforehand. Breaking a task into smaller steps can help you better understand what is involved. Visualizing is also a key part of this, as it can help understand not only what needs to be done, but also what are the best ways to do so.Finally, focus is a key part of the roadmap to detail-oriented nature. If you are not able to focus, try improving this specific skill with meditation, for instance.HardworkingYou’ll also need to be prepared to work hard for the objectives. Since the framework emphasizes performance, the leade r must be setting an example of high standards, with the quality of work and the ability to finish objectives.The ability to work harder is directly related to the sense of motivation. The more motivated you feel, the more effort you are going to put in. Therefore, the key to creating a hardworking nature is all about motivating yourself to push forward. Committing yourself to a specific goal can be done by:Set a clear goal for everything you do. You need to be aware of what you are doing, but also why you are doing it. If you are aware of your tasks and what the achievements would mean to you, you’ll feel more inspired to work towards them.Create habits. You shouldn’t think in terms of trying to motivate yourself towards a goal, because willpower can be quickly depleted. Instead, focus on establishing small habits that help you achieve goals. Set automated routines, such as focusing for 15 minutes in the morning to clear your e-mail, and soon you’ll do them efficiently withou t much thinking.Learn to step out of your comfort zone. There’s a saying in sports that goes, “No pain, no gain”. It might be cheesy, but it is true. You can’t achieve greatness by staying in your comfort zone. Start by trying new things and venturing into the unknown in all aspects of your life.Remember to reward and punish yourself. Sometimes motivation and hard work comes down to simple rewards or punishments. If you know there’s something good at the end of the line, you might be able to push yourself harder. On the other hand, you should also try the opposite â€" Pushing yourself harder towards a goal by having a punishment in mind.Task-focusedAs well as being detail-oriented, bureaucratic leaders also need to be task-focused. The framework is about performance and achieving the set objectives, not innovation or empowerment. As a leader, you need to be on top of all the objectives and know how the tasks can be done most efficiently.Task-focused leaders must create cle ar schedules for subordinates, with emphasis on the requirements of the task. You need to focus on the standards of the objective and much of it relies on the same skills as detail-oriented leadership. You need an enhanced understanding of the organisation, the functions required for the tasks and the different processes needed to achieve the goals in the best way.One of the key aspects of being task-focused is about improving your ability to pay attention. If you are easily distracted, you can’t perform at your highest level under this leadership style.Entrepreneur recently recommended three simple tips for staying focused during the day. According to the experts, you first need to get creative work out of the way. This means making decisions, for instance, should be a top priority, with the more automated jobs following afterwards.You should also schedule your time more deliberately. Understand when your focus is at its peak and dedicate your toughest tasks to these moments. Don ’t venture into a day with the idea that you’ll do things as they come, but carefully allocate your tasks to timeslots.Finally, the article emphasized training your brain, just as you do your muscles. Commit yourself to a single task for a short period and continue increasing the allocated time as you go along.Strong-mindedThe bureaucratic leader’s role might seem easy, as the authority is solely in the hands of the leader. You don’t need to worry about structure of power or delegating decision-making to subordinates, but it doesn’t mean the position wouldn’t require a strong mind.In fact, strong-mindedness is a crucial requirement for a bureaucratic leader, as you need to be able to keep everything in order and ensure the framework isn’t broken.There are five key qualities to being strong-minded, according to Michael Hyatt. You need to be:Confident. Confidence can be built by taking small steps. Hyatt writes that, “success builds upon itself, and slowly, it lays dow n a permanent route to change.”Courageous. You also need to have courage and this is closely attached to your ability to step outside of that comfort zone.Committed. You’ll also need to be committed to achieving the objectives you set for yourself and the organization. Understand that success takes time, but if you don’t believe in what you are doing, you’ll never get there.In control. Being in control doesn’t necessarily mean you can control everything â€" you can’t. But you need to have faith in what you are doing and know that you are skilled enough to achieve your goals. If you learn everything there is to know about a topic and you continue training yourself in the industry and in leadership, you’ll stay in better control of the results.Possess a sense of purpose. Finally, Hyatt recommends improving your sense of purpose. You can stay strictly on target to achieve the objectives, if you are aware of what you are working towards. He quoted Dr Benjamin Mays in his a rticle, who once said, “The tragedy of life does not lie in not reaching your goals, the tragedy lies in not having any goals to reach.” PassionateFinally, bureaucratic leadership is not the world’s most passion inducing leadership styles, but it does require the leader to be passionate. The meticulous focus on objectives, the ability to concentrate on the tasks ahead, and the hard work it takes to keep everything in order won’t be achieved if you aren’t passionate about leading the troops.Because the bureaucratic style is focused on objectives and following the same framework each day, feeling of boredom is possible. Therefore, you must have the passion for the work you do and for achieving the objectives you’ve set out.A Forbes post by Kevin Harrington from 2014 listed a few tips to reigniting your passion for the work you do. Among these were:Having a break â€" Sometimes removing yourself from the situation, such as work, and doing something completely different can m ake you want to get back to work.Read more â€" Learning is a great way to find your love of the industry. Don’t only read books regarding your profession, but also educate yourself on leadership, entrepreneurialism and emotional intelligence.Use a mentor â€" You should join a mentoring program or find a person you can turn to when things get rough. As well as having a mentor of your own, you could also try mentoring, as it can be a great learning curve to see someone else just starting out in the leadership role. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIPThe bureaucratic leadership has its own set of benefits it can provide to organizations in today’s world. But equally, the leadership theory also poses plenty of challenges both organization and leaders should keep in mind when considering using the approach.Advantages of bureaucratic leadershipWhen it comes to the advantages of bureaucratic leadership the most notable benefit must be the essential nature of bureauc racy in organizations. In short, bureaucracy is to some extent an essential part of any modern business and therefore, the bureaucratic leadership style can be an easy continuum. In addition to the previous point, the bureaucratic leadership framework is easily repeatable. Because of the focus on establishing a clear and well-defined set of rules and processes, replicating a successful system is not difficult.This provides the advantage of maintaining the framework under all sorts of circumstances. If the organization faces changes in personnel or in other similar situations, the bureaucratic processes and established structures can keep the processes running and quickly steady the ship, so to speak. When the authority system is established, then decisions are made quicker. The hierarchical nature and pre-set procedures ensure that there is no time wasted in figuring out what happens next.The set structures and regulations make introduction of the new subordinates much easier. Overa ll, the leadership framework is exceptionally suited for organizations, which perform highly repeatable tasks. In the case of the fast food industry and the theory of McDonaldization, you can see how the bureaucratic engine can boost the organization in terms of achieving the objectives. For new subordinates, getting stuck in with the role will be easy, as the expectations and procedures are clearly defined.Different to certain other leadership theories, such as charismatic leadership, the bureaucratic model doesn’t emphasize the leader. The leader is only in the position through his or her competence and the power doesn’t come from his or her personality, but the position. In the perfect bureaucratic scenario, people obtain positions based on competence and skills, with the structure guaranteeing them the power to lead. A leader doesn’t need to worry about inspiring the subordinates in order to gain legitimacy.Overall, the bureaucratic leadership system can provide extremely reliable results. It guarantees procedures don’t falter under pressure and ensures everyone in the organization is aware of the processes and objectives. In essence, it provides organizations with better focus and a well-defined roadmap for achieving the success. If you want consistency, then the bureaucratic framework can provide it.The advantage of stability isn’t only enjoyed by the organization, but the subordinates can also benefit from the consistency. Under the bureaucratic leadership, job security can be high, as employees are expected to perform in a clear manner. As long as you follow the norms set by the organization and you help achieve the set objectives, then you can continue working for the organization. The improved job security can act as a motivational boost and help the subordinates to maintain professionalism.It should also be mentioned that the bureaucratic system could be especially beneficial for organizations, which rely on safety. Dangerous jobs or organ izations that deal with sensitive information can improve security with a bureaucratic system, as it guarantees everyone in the organization follows a set of laws and procedures. Knowing a set of procedures can automate performance and make responding to emergencies much faster.Disadvantages of bureaucratic leadershipDespite some of the above benefits, bureaucratic leadership also creates a few hurdles that can be difficult to overcome. Perhaps the most challenging aspect of the structured leadership model is how it deals with creativity and innovation. Since the system relies on structures and established procedure, it can be an inflexible system.Subordinates are not expected to make decisions out-of-the-box and everything that would deviate from the established system will have to be dealt with supervisors. The rigid structure can create an environment where people just follow the procedure and don’t try to consider different ways of doing things.The bureaucratic system can dimi nish creative thinking because the system for changing the procedures can be cumbersome. A new idea will need to be introduced in steps, following the hierarchical power structure, and even if the suggestion is accepted, changing the old structures can take time. Change is never easy, but it can be especially difficult in a system that’s not used to changing. Breaking established habits is a difficult thing to do and it can be extremely hard within an organization.Furthermore, while bureaucratic leadership does establish a strong professionalism within an organization and people can progress on the career ladder based on competence, the leadership style doesn’t necessarily empower subordinates as much as certain other styles. The framework rewards people who are professional and can follow the rules â€" there is not necessarily much emphasis on increasing your expertise. As long as the subordinate is able to perform the tasks according to the rules and achieve the goals set, the willingness to improve skills or understanding of different aspects of the work.Maybe you even need to think about moving beyond empowering your employees. Overall, the conformity to rules and the job security provided by the framework can hinder not only the motivation of the worker, but also damage the organization. First, when the subordinate doesn’t have to challenge him or herself, the everyday work can quickly become mundane. Knowing that you can’t truly innovate and be creative with your approach can damage your passion towards the work and you simply start performing what is necessary. You don’t push yourself further and challenge yourself in terms of the quality of work, as doing the minimum can be enough.Furthermore, subordinates who thrive under pressure and who are passionate about developing their skills can find the bureaucratic environment damaging in terms of their career. Not being able to use your talent to the maximum and not being surrounded by creativity, resentment might bubble under the surface and lead to passionate and talented subordinates to move to another organization.In addition, the organization can stall in terms of improvement, as the subordinates become complacent and unmotivated. As long as people do their jobs, the organization has little breathing room in terms of moving subordinates to other roles or indeed hiring new talent. As mentioned above, the most talented subordinates are likely to move forward, while the subordinates that stay are only performing average, as they aren’t pushed to the next level.It must be said that the bureaucratic leadership framework is also task-oriented, with less focus placed on the individual. The aim is not about empowering subordinates or inspiring them to lead, but rather to achieve the goals in the most efficient manner. The style can seem robotic and subordinates can easily feel less appreciated under the system. The organizations focus and investment are directed towards impro ving the processes, not necessarily the people performing these tasks.EXAMPLES OF FAMOUS BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSBureaucratic leadership style has a long history. It’s been used in politics and in religions organizations around the world. The effectiveness of the style has seen a number of great leaders take advantage of the framework, with business leaders understanding the essential nature of the style.Who are some of the bureaucratic leaders you might want to look up to? Below are four examples of the benefits and the occasional downside of the leadership framework.Winston ChurchillWhile the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, showed a number of different leadership qualities, bureaucratic leadership is definitely among the strongest models he used. Churchill had charisma, which he used during the Second World War, but he also relied on a heavily structured system to get things done.Churchill’s key bureaucratic leader traits were his decisive nature and persistency to foll ow the plan. Churchill was wary of both Stalin’s Soviet Russia and Hitler’s Nazi Germany right from the start. This wasn’t a popular assessment of the time and the British Government didn’t believe the stark images Churchill was painting about the future, but Churchill stuck to his decision-making and view of the two leaders. Eventually, as the war began to tear Europe, Churchill was voted in and he created a decisive plan to defeat the enemy, no matter the cost.Furthermore, Churchill also showed plenty of persistency. In his famous speech, Churchill said,“Whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, w shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.”Churchill was also a detail-oriented leader, something that is a key trait in the bureaucratic framework. He wanted to know everything involving different aspects of the government and wartime military effort.He understood the importance of trial and error, knowing it’ll be inevitable to have ups and downs in whatever you do. He smartly said, “Success is not final, failure is not fatal; it is the courage to continue that counts.” Colin PowellColin Powell is another great political example of a bureaucratic leader. His leadership style has roots in the military, which is an organization that often utilises the bureaucratic model. Powell quickly rose through the ranks in the US military, becoming a general and eventually the first black member of the Join Chiefs of Staff. His leadership skills were recognized in 2001, when he became the US Secretary of State.From his time in the military, Powell learned the power of bureaucratic leadership and the need to follow procedures and norms. He understood that success was all about optimizing your potential to succeed and minimizing your failures. In essence, it is what bureaucratic framework is all about â€" creating a system that maximizes its potential for greatness and creates efficiency across the organization.Powell also focused always on the mission and the task ahead. It wasn’t ever about achieving personal greatness; he knew that great organizations succeed and fail together, not through individual performance. He once said,“I’ve tried to do my best at what has come my way…I’m not without ambition. I’ve had a full and active public life.”In a 2012 Forbes article, Colin Powell gave advice to entrepreneurs and a number of the tips were directly applicable to a bureaucratic structure. For instance, Powell writes in the article about the importance of linking the organizations strategy with the right resources. “Make sure people know what the job is and give them everything they need to get it done,” he wrote.You can understand more about Colin Powell’s leadership and the lessons he’s learnt by watching the below TEDx talk. Harold Geneen / ITTThe business world has also provided examples of bureaucratic le aders and Harold Geneen is among these figures. He made most of his success as the CEO of International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation (ITT), which he helped to grow into a multinational conglomerate. Much of his success was due to his focus and bureaucratic management style.In fact, Geneen is often touted as the person who helped develop international businesses and establish the framework required to launch medium-sized organizations into the world stage. His idea of creating a parent company that owns subsidiaries in different industries is a popular model for most mega-corporations of today.The bureaucratic leadership style was evident from the manner in which he structured the organizations. ITT held a tight leash on how the finances were run in subsidiaries and the accountability structure always followed a clear hierarchical outline. Different departments were built on a hierarchical model and the autonomy was placed within these smaller units. The framework of the organ ization was always set on a macro-level, even though micro-decisions were allowed within smaller team.Harold Geneen was a passionate student of leadership and he spent time writing on the topic as well. He once said, “Leadership is practiced not so much in words as in attitude and in actions.” The quote reflects the bureaucratic leadership idea of keeping the organization and performance at the centre, not the individual achievements or traits.“In business, words are words; explanations are explanations, promises are promises, but only performance is reality,” Geneen noted.Alfred P. Sloan / General MotorsAnother example of a bureaucratic business leader comes from the early 1920s in the form of Alfred Sloan. The American businessman was elected president of General Motors and under his leadership, the company reformed its approach to leadership and management. He didn’t just change the way General Motors was managed, but also influenced the whole of the industry.Historian Harold Livesay has argued that Sloan “bureaucratised the entrepreneurial function”. He created a hierarchical organization, which focused on following rules and taking calculated risks. He decentralized a number of the functions, allowing individual sections of the organization to manage themselves. Sloan was a meticulous leader, although sometimes rather ruthless as well.He strongly believed in the corporate culture, especially when it was about decentralized decision-making, measured performance and continuous development. Sloan’s ideal society would have resembled something present in today’s world, where a number of public institutions take advantage of a corporate leadership culture. Organizational control was the key to success in Sloan’s eyes.Sloan had a realistic approach to development and innovation. He understood the value, but he also wanted to focus on providing people with things they wanted and which were practical. He once said,“The greatest real thrill t hat life offers is to create, to construct, to develop something useful. Too often we fail to recognise and pay tribute to the creative spirit. It is that spirit that creates our jobs.”Sloan was always willing to take the risks, if the rewards were worth it.FINAL THOUGHTSBureaucratic leadership is one leadership style that has been thoroughly tested throughout the times. It has been a popular form of organizing societies and after Weber’s theorizing, the framework became a popular choice for leaders in the business world as well.Nonetheless, the style has suffered from a bad reputation, often driven by inefficiently executed systems. Bureaucratic leadership can be tedious and laborious, with pressure placed people strictly following the rules. There can be loss of creativity and lack of subordinate empowerment under the framework.On the other hand, bureaucratic leadership is somewhat necessary in any large business and if the framework is set properly, it can provide an efficien t structure for a business to function. It’s definitely a style to consider if you are leading an organization with inexperienced employees and you need consistency and reliable results.

Quantitative And Qualitative Research Methods - 1694 Words

In this paper, I will outline quantitative and qualitative research methods and provide illustrations in the context of some social issues, which will hopefully offer insight into how each method is properly applied. Social issues around the world are very broad and diverse. They are usually made up of issues or concerns which directly or indirectly affect a person or a certain group of a society and are considered to be problems, controversies or both and are related to moral values, therefore their immediate social environment may become vulnerable in some respect which may also effect several individuals environment and in turn society. Quantitative research uses an empirical reasoning also known as the top down approach starting†¦show more content†¦The census utilizes statistics; which are any function of a number of random variables, usually identically dispersed that will be used to estimate a population parameter (Collins online dictionary, 2012). One useful statistic in social research is the Chi Square, as Faherty (2008. p 149) describes the Chi square test is always non parametric since it uses nominal level data, or ordinal data treated as nominal level in both dependent and independent variables. One example of this was a study that was completed in Oregon relating to how African American adolescents viewed the variable – respect, particularly as it was experienced by them from others. The research involved 200 African American males ranging between 14 and 18 years. Of the 200 African American males, 100 of them were incarcerated while the other 100 were not incarcerated but had connection with a community youth development program. Researchers administered the 20-item African American Respect Scale (AARS) a standardized scale and a 45-item Scale of Racial Socialization – Adolescent Version to all participants. This 45 items scale was used to assess the level of racial socialization the participants had received. Of the variables, four measured by these two instruments were: societal respect, family respect, peer respect, and racial socialization. A correlation analysis is the measure of connotation between variables, and thisShow MoreRelatedQualitative Quantit ative Research Methods1047 Words   |  5 PagesQualitative amp; Quantitative Research Methods PSY 326 Dr. Willow Aureala March 29, 2011 Qualitative amp; Quantitative Research Methods There are two types of research methods: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research methods are complex meaningful analyses characterized by processes and meanings that are not measured in terms of mathematical measurements. Quantitative research however, relies and builds on mathematical procedures and methods, such as frequency, quality, amountRead MoreQualitative And Quantitative Research Methods936 Words   |  4 PagesQualitative and quantitative research methods are two alternative applications for research methods. Both are very different in how data is collected, what data is collected, and how data is measured. Both of these research methods are utilized amongst the major areas of psychology and the social sciences. This paper will provide a brief description of qualitative and quantitative methods, provide the differences between the two approaches along with the terminology used for both; I will alsoRead MoreQualitative And Quantitative Research Methods1285 Wor ds   |  6 Pages Qualitative and Quantitative Research Ravi Teja Mora Dr. Jimi Peters Research Methods Stratford University â€Æ' Qualitative and Quantitative Research Introduction There has been a widespread of debate in recent years regarding the quantitative and qualitative research methods, wether one or the other has to be emerged as superior. Although there have been so many theories and conclusions, this paper intends to discuss on the similarities and differences between the qualitative and quantitative researchRead MoreQuantitative And Qualitative Research Methods Essay1218 Words   |  5 Pagesindividuals are confused about or not aware of the differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods. Some think those terms can be used interchangeably. Describe the key features (up to 5) that distinguish quantitative research from qualitative research. Provide examples to demonstrate your main points. Firstly, qualitative and quantitative research methods are used for different purposes. Quantitative methods try to explain and make predictions, confirm and validate an existingRead MoreQuantitative And Qualitative Research Methods Essay1850 Words   |  8 Pages3.2 Research Methods â€Å"Quantitative and Qualitative† were the two principal approaches in psychological research currently (Bavelas, 1998). Quantitative research is concerned with applying statistical approaches to test hypotheses. Statistical methods are to consider as the analysis of data, it normally concerned with â€Å"probabilistic model† as a background. (Sibson, 1999), the prominent characteristic of probabilistic model is as the analysis of data was collected, which is considered about â€Å"mean,Read MoreQuantitative And Qualitative Research Methods871 Words   |  4 Pagessociology, researchers can use a different range of research methods to acquire new data. The various forms of research methods include surveys, ethnomethodology, experiments and documentary research. A common distinction is often made in sociology between quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative methods intend to measure social phenomena by using mathematical methods and statistical ana lysis. On the other hand, qualitative methods mean to collect rich, detailed data, allowing forRead MoreResearch On Quantitative And Qualitative Methods2146 Words   |  9 Pages Regina Merriweather 5/19/2016 Question #1- Research (Program Outcomes 3 and 5) Part A: Quantitative and qualitative methods differ from one another as to their research design elements as listed below: †¢ Research methods purposes; †¢ Types of sampling; †¢ Data collection procedures; †¢ Data analysis techniques; and †¢ Conclusions that can be drawn from data analysis. Compare and contrast quantitative and qualitative methods on each of the elements listed. Please use scholarly, academicRead Morequalitative and quantitative research methods1823 Words   |  8 PagesPsychological Research Methods: Exploring Qualitative and Quantitative Research In psychology, answers to our questions are not as succinct as in other types of sciences, and the findings essentially depend upon the underlying epistemology used. This essay seeks to define and examine the fields of qualitative and quantitative research. It will address the different epistemologies and methodologies of each paradigm, and aim to give you a brief overview of the two main research methodsRead MoreQuantitative And Qualitative Methods Of Research Essay899 Words   |  4 Pages Quantitative versus qualitative (Lichtman, M. 2006) It is true that most of the management in the business world go for mixed methodologies in order to attain comprehensive and accurate findings of the research. Having said that there are pros and cons of both the methods that are taken into account by the management in order to achieve set goals and overcome hindrances in the business. Qualitative method of research is a speedy process that provides fresh and inventive results with in- depth analysisRead MoreQuantitative And Qualitative Research Methods1039 Words   |  5 PagesThis research project followed a multipronged approach combining both quantitative and qualitative research methods. After addressing the sample size and exclusions, the second section of Part I examines the strengths and shortcomings of the qualitative research methods, including the interviews and the on-site observations of fresh evidence matters. Finally, I hope to demonstrate why it was necessary to turn to the source of the case la w to mine the raw data to sustain my working hypotheses.

The Problem with The Average American Diet - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1346 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/02/15 Category Health Essay Level High school Topics: Diet Essay Did you like this example? In this very second, approximately 350 slices of pizza are being consumed across the nation totaling 100 acres of pizza being eaten each day making it a $30 billion per year industry. Cheese has been found to be 70% fat, yet that has not stopped it from being a highly popular dish. The infamous Big Macs from McDonalds are sold each second for a total of $2304 at the rate of their demand. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Problem with The Average American Diet" essay for you Create order Consequently, Americans also spend $60 billion annually in weight loss programs. When the dietary components of the average American consist of 42% dairy and animal products, 51% refined and processed foods, and only 7% fruits and veggies, it shouldn’t be too surprising to find that our nation is being plagued with obesity and diseases such as heart attacks and diabetes at unprecedented rates. The invention of fast food has increased our convenience as well as our waistline. Furthermore, it can be noted that the biggest problem with this diet is specifically the fact that animal products are being processed and consumed in ways that is putting the health of Americans at risk. Nearly 15,000 years ago humans began hunting and gathering. Our eyes evolved to have the ability to see the bright colors of nutrient-rich fruits and vegetables from many feet away while the meat that was hunted provided our ancestors with the protein that they needed to survive and make offspring. Due to the fact that meat has done so and it is synonymous with the word protein, many are led to the conclusion that vegan or vegetarian diets are not healthy; thus filling up their plates with steaks, fried chicken, and extra cheese pizza with processed pepperoni on top. However, besides providing people with protein, meat also comes packed with cholesterols and saturated fats that can raise your blood pressure and increase your chance of heart attack. Omnivores have a startling 50% chance of developing heart disease while lacto-ovo vegetarians are at 15% and vegans are at a mere 6%. Eating the flesh of cows is not the only health offense here; the trouble with drinking the milk of these mammals should also be noted. There is no other species on the planet that takes the milk from another animal and drinks it past their nurturing period, but we humans cruelly contribute to the slaughtering of more than 245,000 dairy cows per year only for the sake of our own selfish â€Å"needs.† We grow up believing that dairy milk is packed with calcium that will provide us with strong healthy bones due to the fact that the dairy industry is loaded with money and can spend millions on advertising and biased research that will lead us to believe so. Ironically, countries with the highest dairy consumption are also the ones with the highest rates of osteoporosis. In a world where corrupted industries are in control, it is crucial to become a conscious critical consumer who is aware of how the food we eat affects not only ourselves but the environment around us. Our addiction with animal products requires the raising of animals in ways that use unsustainable amounts of land, food, energy, and water. According to the Worldwatch Institute, over 51% of global greenhouse-gas emissions are a result of animal agriculture. As cows are being mainly conventionally fed GMO corn that is not natural to them, they release methane gas which further contributes to the climate change that is being experienced in this century. The land that is being used to farm these commercial animals in the first place is vastly inefficient. It takes up to 10 pounds of grains just to produce to produce 1 pound of meat, and the United States is using 56 million acres of land to grow feed for animals while only 4 million acres of land are used to grow feed for humans as repor ted by the U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification. Not only does it take vast amounts of land to sustain the average American diet, but it also uses insane amounts of the most crucial element on our planet: water. A single dairy cow needs to hydrate itself with 50 gallons of water per day, and twice that on a particularly hot day. More than 244 gallons of water are used to produce 1 pound of beef and it is well known that hamburgers are prevalent among our nation. The statistics and reports from environmentally conscious agencies, in regards to animal agriculture, point to the direction of being in disfavor to raising farm animals as their research outlines the impact that a diet consisting of meat and dairy has on our environment. With our cynical human nature, it can be easy to forget the impact that animal agriculture has on the animals themselves. Animal cruelty laws are strictly enforced in the defense of household pets, yet they do not seem to apply to the flesh that was slaughtered in order to end up in our digestive system. Why is it that mainly household animals have the privilege to live a long healthy life while cows and chickens are destined to live a life full of misery and abuse in a slaughterhouse? Every year, over 56 billion farmed animals are senselessly killed so that people’s taste buds can satisfied. Prior to having their lives flashed before their eyes, farmed animals are subjected to the cruelest living conditions. The factory farming industry does its best to maximize output while minimizing costs. In order to do so, animals are constrained of space to the point where they can’t even turn around or lie down. To make matters worse, antibiotics are used to make the animals gro w abnormally large and keep them alive in unsanitary conditions. This use of antibiotics has also been known to lead to antibiotic-resistant bacteria that can threaten human health. Essentially, factory farms have egg-laying hens clustered in small cages, chickens and pigs in jam-packed sheds, and cows in crowded filthy lots. Female cows are further victims of cruelty as they are born into a tragedy in which they are artificially inseminated and genetically manipulated to produce 4.5 times as much milk than they naturally would. Calves are taken from their mothers 1 to 3 days after their birth with females being sentenced to the same fate as their mothers and male calves becoming disregarded as worthless by the dairy industry to become veal. When the facts and the solid truth behind this particular problem- the problem with the average American diet-is brought into light, the solution becomes quite obvious: Americans need to simply stop selfishly consuming flesh foods that hurt themselves and the whole ecosystem. Despite how sensitive of a topic diet can be the truth must outweigh this. Most of our population is sadly addicted to the unhealthy foods in their diet; for instance, when people make the experimental switch to a vegan diet a majority of them report missing cheese above everything else. This makes sense since cheese contains dairy proteins, called casomorphins, that act as mild opiates attaching to the same brain receptors as heroin and other narcotics inducing a tiny hit of dopamine with every bite. However, like any addiction, it can be very difficult to overcome but it is not impossible. Social support from our culture can help. Over the years, in this information era, more people have been switching to a ve gan diet. No longer do we have vegan markets as a scarcity within cities, but we now have entire markets, food brands, and restaurants that promote vegan food in their business: Whole Foods, Daiya, Earth Balance, are just a few examples. There is hope that our external world is adapting and a decision to change among individuals must come from within. Switching to a vegan diet has become known to reverse diabetes symptoms and help heal other health diseases. Currently, vegans are the ones with the lowest BMIs out of every other diet. Without a doubt, deciding to be part of a diet that is plant-based will help benefit not only your own health, but also the state of the environment, and it will save the lives of innocent farm animals. One person can make a difference.

Sub-Saharan Africa An Extraordinary Period of Change Free Essays

Africa’s hopes for a better future depend in large part on improving the health of its people. Sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing a period of extraordinary change. Across the continent, policy reforms are contributing to dynamic economic growth. We will write a custom essay sample on Sub-Saharan Africa: An Extraordinary Period of Change or any similar topic only for you Order Now Greater political openness has strengthened the commitment of African governments to meeting the basic needs of their people. Despite these positive trends, sub-Saharan Africa faces a development challenge greater than any other region. Much of the continent’s population remains desperately poor. With record numbers of adolescents entering their childbearing years, in less than three decades Africa’s population is projected to double again from the current level of 620 million. Meanwhile, many African nations are struggling to provide health and education services to populations expanding at a small percent a year. In many countries, rapid population growth is contributing to degradation of the environment and undermining prospects for prosperity. Africa’s hopes for a better future depend in large part on improving the health of its people. Better access to good quality reproductive health services, particularly family planning, is key to improving health status – especially for women. The reality of reproductive health in Africa, however, is far from ideal. Women begin child-bearing in their teens and have an average of six children. Meanwhile, AIDS has struck hard in Sub-Saharan Africa, where roughly 1 in 10 adults – both men and women – are infected with HIV. Yet traditional attitudes favoring large families are changing rapidly, owing to the growth of cities, the rising cost of living and lower child death rates, among other factors. Demand for family planning has increased dramatically in some countries, and the decline in birthrates ,limited as recently as a decade ago to only a few countries in the region, appears to be spreading steadily across the continent. In much of Africa, however, large families are still the norm. This situation is reinforced by low levels of education, particularly among women, and social barriers to the full economic participation of women. Yet, school enrollment rates declined or came to a standstill during the economic crisis many African countries experienced in the 1980s. Compared to countries in other developing regions, African countries have only recently begun to adopt population policies and initiate family planning and related reproductive health programs. However, African governments increasingly recognize the individual and societal benefits of smaller families. In the last decade there has been steady growth in the number of countries establishing national family planning programs and in the scope of these efforts. Still, Sub-Saharan Africa has a long way to go. In addition to meeting the growing need for family planning and reproductive health services, African countries must expand access to education for girls and economic opportunities for women. This will require significantly increased financial contributions from African governments and house-holds, as well as international donors. In sum, addressing poor reproductive health and rapid population growth is a daunting task requiring comprehensive action on many different fronts. A priority area is population growth. This is a function of birth or fertility, mortality, and net migration. Sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other regions in its demographic transition. The total fertility rate, the total number of children the average woman has in a lifetime. For Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole has remained at about 6. 5 for the past 25 years, while it has declined to about 4 in all developing countries taken together. Recent surveys appear to signal, however, that several counties, are at or near a critical demographic turning point. Sub-Saharan Africa continues to maintain the highest total fertility rates in the world. The total fertility rate is the average number of children a women will bear during her reproductive years, usually between 15 and 49 years old, although some analysts have expanded this range to include 10 and 55 year old’s. Families in the region average an estimated 6. 4 children. Although there is considerable variation by region, socioeconomic status, and place of residence (rural vs. urban). Disease vectors are not solely responsible for low fertility rates in Sub-Saharan Africa. Some countries have made significant inroads in their family planning efforts to reduce fertility. You can separate fertility rates into two types of determinants: first being the direct that relates to the behavioral and biological aspects of fertility. And the second are indirect factors such as socioeconomic (one’s income, education, cultural, historical, environmental, and politic-institutional factors Marriage patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa have a number of features that are unique and quite distinct from North America and Europe. Most marriages, particularly in traditional societies, are universal and occur at an early age. This may also be view as a reason to the problem of rapid population growth. The belief systems, customs, traditions, and values of Sub-Saharan Africans have significant impact on fertility levels. The African family structure is male dominated, and decisions about reproduction and family size are usually deferred to the husband. This may tend to make the women find it difficult to talk to their husbands about family planning. Since a high premium is placed on children, African women aspire to elevate their status, comparing with their husband’s request to have more children. Mortality levels in Sub-Saharan Africa have declined substantially over the years, thus converging towards levels associated with more developed countries. Improvements in health, sanitation, and nutrition standards; massive vaccination campaigns against measles, small pox, and other diseases; and increased efforts on the part of World Health Organization and the International Red Cross have all contributed to this downward trend. Even with the lowering of death rates, there are still slight regional variations in mortality levels that reflect environmental, economic, and sociocultural factors. Death rates may be prone to drought, areas with high incidence of AIDS and those areas that have experienced social unrest, civil war, and political upheaval also may have relatively high mortality rates. Migration involves the movement from one administrative unit to another, resulting in a change in permanent residence. Recent estimates show that Sub-Saharan Africa contains 35 million international migrants, almost half of the world’s total. Another concern like many other countries has been the â€Å"brain drain† of African intellectuals and students. Another concern regarding international migration is the refugee crisis, which has taken on added proportions recently. The most widely used definition is one which characterizes refugees as anyone who,†owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality and is unable or unwilling to avail himherself of the protection of that country. † Average per capita food production has declined in many countries, per capita calorie consumption had stagnated at very low levels, and roughly 100 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa are food insecure.. The average African consumes only about 87 percent of the calories needed for a healthy and productive life. Women’s Time, and Their Role in Rural Production and Household Maintenance Systems Most women in Sub-Saharan Africa bear heavy responsibilities for food crop production, weeding and harvesting on men’s fields, post-harvest processing, fuel wood and water provision, and household maintenance. But the burdens on rural women are increasing, as population growth outpaces the evolution of agricultural technology and growing numbers of men leave the farms for urban and industrial jobs. Many factors underlie the persistence of very high human fertility rates. The fundamental problem is low demand for fewer children. Environmental degradation, agricultural problems, food insecurity and poverty, and the heavy work burdens of woman all play a part in this respect. High infant and child mortality rates are a major factor explaining the persistent high demand for large number of children in Africa. Where girls are kept our of school to help with domestic tasks, this negatively affects their fertility preferences and their ability to make informed decisions about family planning once they reach childbearing age. The appropriate policy response and action program to address these problems are not easily brought into compatible focus. Many of the most immediately attractive remedies have been tried and have failed. A key aspect will be to increase demand for fewer children. Educational efforts, directed at both men and women, are needed to raise awareness of the benefits of fewer children. Women’s work loads need to be eased to reduce the need for child labour. Dynamic agricultural development and improved food security will also reduce the demand for children. Promoting Environmentally Sustainable Agriculture Farm productivity per unit area must be raised significantly to generate more output with little increase in the area farmed. To minimize negative impacts on the environment, much more emphasis is required on â€Å"environmentally benign and sustainable† technologies. Numerous such agricultural techniques have been developed and successfully applied, often through adaptation of traditional practices that have evolved in response to local agro-ecological and socioeconomic condition. However, intensification with these technologies alone is unlikely to be sufficient in most Sub-Saharan African countries to achieve agricultural growth rates of 4 percent per year and more. Improved variety/fertilization/farm mechanization technologies will also be necessary. Increased use of fertilizers will be especially important to raise yields and maintain soil fertility. Intensive and resource-conserving agriculture must be made less risky and more profitable. This requires appropriate marketing, price, tax and exchange rate policies as well as investments in rural infrastructure, health and education facilities. Creating parks, reserves and community-owned range land and protecting these against conversion into crop land will be important to conserve natural resources and bio diversity. So will reducing infrastructure development in forests and other fragile areas to discourage settlement in these areas. Since this will limit the scope for further expansion of cropped land and, potentially, the scope for agricultural production growth, there is a trade-off between conservation and agricultural growth. Creating additional protection areas will only be feasible and sustainable if agricultural production can be intensified at the rate suggested here (i. e. to about a 3. 5 percent annual increase in farm out put per unit of land farmed). in this sense, conservation and agricultural intensification are complementary. As African farmers have shown, land scarcity leads to agricultural intensification — if the necessary advice and inputs are available, intensification can be made sustainable and the rate of intensification greatly accelerated. Infrastructure Development and Settlement Policy The strong bias in urban infrastructure investments favoring the few major cities needs to be abandoned. Adequate transport lines to product markets are major factors associated with the intensification of farming — even where population densities are comparatively low. Rural roads and improved tracks navigable for animal-drawn vehicles are crucial. Major efforts are also needed to promote the use of locally suitable and appropriate intermediate transport technology, especially animal-drawn implements, and of improved off-road transport. Infrastructure development also has a major impact on the productivity of rural labour and on key determinants of fertility. Roads provide access to health facilities and schools. Better educated and healthier farmers are more productive and more likely to be innovators. Water supply and sanitation facilities have significant impact on health and labour productivity. Rural water supply, sanitation, health and education facilities and services are particularly important in terms of their impact on infant and child mortality and on female education — both critical determinants of fertility preferences. With the major exceptions of the humid regions of Central and coastal West Africa, almost all of Sub-Saharan Africa will be facing water shortages or water scarcity early in the next century. There is an urgent need for effective hydrological planning and for prudent demand management. Water must be recognized as the critical and limiting resource it is. it must be carefully allocated, and must be protected against pollution. Planning for water use must be based on natural hydrological units such as river basins and integrated with planning for land use and other activities that affect, and are affected by, water development. Since water resources are frequently shared among countries, it is important to cooperate closely in planning for long-term water sharing. Twenty-one of the world’s thirty poorest countries are in sub-Saharan Africa. Nearly half the region’s people live in absolute poverty – the equivalent of a dollar a day or less. Positive per capita growth in the past four years has not been enough to prevent an increase in the absolute number living in poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. By end of 1998, nearly 23 million adults and children were estimated to be living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa – accounting for 2/3 of the world’s infected persons. More than 1. 8 million Africans will die from AIDS this year. New infection rates are staggering: in South Africa, 1,750 are infected by AIDS daily. Problems extend beyond the health sector. HIV/AIDS has raised the cost of doing business, killing professionals, schoolteachers and farmers, reducing incomes now and investments in the future. HIV/AIDS is overloading social welfare systems. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for 95% of the 13 million children worldwide who will be orphaned by AIDS by end of 2000. At current rates of population growth, sub-Saharan Africa will grow to over one billion people by 2020, despite declining birthrates and increasing number of deaths from AIDS. Contraceptive prevalence rates have been rising for the last three decades, yet remain under 10% in most of sub-Saharan Africa. The high rate of population growth intensifies existing social, political, economic, and environmental pressures. Aids assists African countries to reduce these pressures through family planning programs emphasizing healthier, smaller families, and through support of girls education, a major determinant of family size. As a result of the above information you can see that rapid population growth in Sub-Saharan Africa at the present time is a moment of opportunity on the African continent. Africa is making new headway: democracy and economic reform are revitalizing the continent, and a number of countries are experiencing dynamic economic growth. With greater political open-ness, African governments are increasingly seeking to address the health and education needs of their people. Despite these positive trends, sub-Saharan Africa faces a development challenge greater than any other region. Africa’s progress has not reached enough people, and too much of the continent is still plagued by political instability. Many African nations are struggling to meet the health and education needs of populations expanding at about three percent a year. In too many countries, rapid population growth continues to threaten the natural resource base and future prospects for prosperity. The region’s ability to slow current high rates of population growth is thus key to achieving its full potential for development. The international community has good reason to care about African development. The continent is endowed with ample mineral and agricultural resources, including the greatest potential in the world for increases in farm productivity. Africa is also one of the last untapped markets for goods and services; industrialized countries thus stand to benefit by trading with a more prosperous Africa. Beyond economic self-interest, there are strong humanitarian reasons to support efforts to alleviate poverty in Africa, home to 11 percent of the world’s population. In many respects, Africa in the late 1990s resembles the East Asian economies as they began their economic take-off three decades ago. African governments need to emphasize three key strategies in their efforts to improve individual well-being and slow population growth. The first priority should be to expand reproductive health and family planning services to meet existing unmet needs. The second, to expand educational and economic opportunities, especially for women, both to improve the lives of individuals and to help encourage a desire for smaller families. The third, to slow the momentum of future population growth through education and reproductive health programs that help young people choose to delay childbearing. Carrying out the comprehensive agenda described above will require enormous effort by African governments. The task is large, yet attainable if these governments increase their current low levels of commitment to reproductive health and family planning programs. Governments and donors should be prepared to invest years of sustained effort to build successful population programs. Over the long haul, there are bound to be setbacks and difficulties. Currently, there is no reason to expect that either the fertility or development transitions will occur more quickly and with less external aid in sub-Saharan Africa than they did in other places. Yet the needs are pressing, and Africa must accelerate the development of population programs and the current trend towards smaller families. This may be possible if African countries are willing to learn as much as possible from the experiences of other regions, while at the same time recognizing the continent’s own special challenges, such as the HIV/AIDS crisis. Africa’s relatively recent establishment of population policies and programs has given it the chance to learn from both the mistakes and achievements of other regions which have grappled with the problem of rapid population growth. African countries, with help from the world community, have the potential to build on these experiences and create their own success story. How to cite Sub-Saharan Africa: An Extraordinary Period of Change, Papers

Social Validity

Being an essential factor in identifying the behavioural patterns of patients, defining the issues that can be described as aberrations in social interaction and locating the methods of intervention, social validity, in fact, is rather hard to define, as â€Å"something of social importance would have to be judged by someone as having value to society† (Wolf, 1978, p. 203).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Validity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At this point, the element of subjectivity factors in, which is inadmissible for behavioural research. Nevertheless, being the key criterion for determining instances of deviation from the acceptable behavioral standards, social validity is still essential for selecting target behavior and designing an intervention strategy, as it helps the patient locate the boundaries for the behaviour types, which can be considered the boundaries of a socially accepted b ehaviour. Herein the paradox of social validity lies; though it is hardly definable in the broad sense of the phenomenon, it, nevertheless, allows a therapist to compare the behaviour of the patient with the appropriate one and, based on the differences thereof, provide the treatment that the patient needs (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007). However, a closer look at the principle of social validity will reveal that it, in fact, helps add the so-called â€Å"social relevance† (Wolf, 1978, p. 207) to the actions of the patients, i.e., make their actions more predictable from the perspective of the society. In other words, the incorporation of the social validity predisposes the incorporation of certain predictability to the actions of the patients, thus, facilitating their integration into the society. Wolf (1978), however, views the issue from a different perspective, stating that the strategy, which involves the concept of social validity, claiming that these are the patients, w ho gain a deeper insight onto how the society works and, therefore, define the behavioural patterns that are generally considered acceptable: â€Å"They set up simulated counselling situations that contained various nonverbal components† (Wolf, 1978, p. 207).Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Indeed, the specified phenomenon allows for developing the skills for not only memorizing the behavioural patterns that are socially acceptable, but also identifying the ones that are expected in a specific social scenario and following them accordingly. Working on a subconscious level and making the patient process the information that comes from both verbal and, most importantly, nonverbal elements of a conversation, the phenomenon in question can be considered essential to developing basic communication skills in the patient. Social validity, thus, can and must be used as a crucial compo nent of an intervention. First and most obvious, social validity assists in determining the key treatment goals (Kavale, Spaulding, Beam, 2009). Hence, with the adoption of the social validity principle, a therapist will be capable of defining the key treatment stages and produce an adequate evaluation of the progress made in the course of the intervention. In addition, social validity enhances the appropriateness soft eh treatment procedures, contextualizing them and making them applicable to a specific case and the individual needs of a specific patient (Wolf, 1978). Finally, the introduction of the social validity concept into the treatment process contributes to the improvement of the key treatment effects, i.e., the promotion of successful communication for the patient (Wolf, 1978). Although the nature of social validity is very hard to identify, the specified concept allows locating efficient methods of treatment.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Validity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, social validity develops responses towards specific expectations in the patient in terms of social behaviour. A crucial part of the treatment process, social validity is to be included in any intervention (Wolf, 1978). Reference List Cooper, J., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis. 2nd ed. London, UK: Pearson. Kavale, K., Spaulding, L., Beam, A. (2009). A time to define: Making the specific learning disability definition prescribe. Learning Disability Quarterly, 32(4), 39–48. Wolf, M. M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2(11), 203–214. This essay on Social Validity was written and submitted by user Rodolfo G. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.